Fasting to Death in Jainism

Gandhi practiced a branch of Hinduism known as Jainism. Although Jainism is one of the smallest organized religions, it may well have the most predominant practice of fasting. Laywomen, in particular, partake in frequent fasts (Jestice, 2004). So central is fasting in Jainism that followers partake in what is considered the most sacred of acts by fasting themselves to death (Jaini, 1979; Laidlaw, 2005).

Even in modern Jainism, devotees routinely choose to fast to death through the ancient ritual of “santhara,” which dates back to around 500 B.C.E. (Chapple, 2007). Santhara aligns with the practices of Jain monasticism where monks fast to death following the example of their teachers (Parrinder, 1973). Theologian Christopher Key Chapple (2007) described the process and purpose of santhara:

When life reaches its natural decline, and when death has been deemed imminent by a competent medical authority, a Jaina might request to embark on the ultimate act of nonviolence through fasting, specifically the sallekhana or santhara fast. This fast, described in the medieval texts, emulates the passing of Parsvanatha and Mahavira, who at the end of their very full lives, gradually renounced all food, then all water, and then finally died, consciously moving into their permanent abode in the Siddha Loka. For an ordinary Jaina monk or layperson, it would hopefully guarantee an improved next birth. (p. 220)

Santhara is a subject of controversy in India, where it is estimated that at least 200 Jains die during the ritual each year (Murray, Huber, & Mechem, 2008). Some place the number of deaths considerably higher, assuming they go unrecorded. While santhara is currently legal in India, members of the legal profession are attempting to have the practice outlawed. Additionally, human rights organizations say santhara is comparable to suicide and euthanasia, which are illegal in India (Foster, 2006). Justice Pana Chand Jain, a retired judge and spokesperson for the Jain community, explained the Jain position on santhara:

Santhara cannot be termed as suicide . . . the person [undertakes] santhara with an open mind and conscious thought, everything is known to the people and it is undertaken by people who have a pure soul. This is nothing but faith in our religion and anything which is a part of ongoing customs, traditions and rituals is protected by the constitutional guarantees. (as cited in BBC, 2003, 10)

Santhara, like all fasting in the Jain tradition, is used to purify the soul. The fast initiates a trance state that enables the individual to reach karmic transcendence, a key principle of their doctrine. Rosemary Rader (2005) described how fasting facilitates this process:

Within Jainism, there is the belief that certain ascetic practices, like fasting, are purificatory in that they can remove the accumulation of karman that weighs down the life-monad. Fasting could therefore carry people upward along the path to liberation from karman. (p. 2997)

In this manner, fasting transforms the karman of the participant by purifying the effect of past actions.

Fasting is done in Jainism in conjunction with the lunar cycle (Dundas, 2002). Prior to undertaking a fast, the participant makes a vow, considered a formal statement of intent (Wiley, 2004). Common lengths of fasting include 1, 8, 14 or 28 days, whereas Saints in Jain mythology fasted for up to a year (Laidlaw, 2005). Fasting is considered a public affair to be celebrated by the family and community (Chapple, 2007; Dundas, 2002). For example, on April 27, 2009, 4,000 Jains fasted together at a yearly festival in Bombay marking the ending of a year-long-fast by the Jain community called “Varshitap” (Shukla, 2009).

References
(To view, roll mouse over the "References" heading; to hide, click on the heading)

Al-Ghazzali, & Faris, N. A. (Trans.). (1995). The mysteries of fasting. Chicago: Kazi.

Anderson, R. (1998). Introduction. In W. Braud & R. Anderson (Eds.), Transpersonal research methods: Honoring human experience (pp. xix-xxxi). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.

Armstrong, K. (1994). History of God: The 4,000-year quest of Judaism, Christianity and Islam. New York: Ballantine.

Assagioli, R. (2007). Transpersonal development: The dimension beyond psychosynthesis. Findhorn, Scotland: Smiling Wisdom.

Bayman, H. (2001). The station of no station. Berkeley, CA: North Atlantic Books.

BBC. (2003, October). Santhara - fasting to death. British Broadcast Corporation. Retrieved May 2, 2009, from http://www.bbc.co.uk/religion/
religions/jainism/customs/ fasting_2.shtml

Bell, R. M. (1985). Holy anorexia. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.

Berenbaum, H., Kerns, J., & Raghavan, C. (2000). Anomalous experience: Examining the scientific evidence. In E. Cardena, S. J. Lynn, & S. C. Krippner (Eds.), Varieties of anomalous experience: Examining the scientific evidence (pp. 25-46). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.

Blake, W., & Keynes, G. (Ed.). (1966). Blake: Complete writings. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

Boulding, K. E. (1979). Ecodynamics: A new theory of societal evolution. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.

Braud, W. (2009, January). Exceptional human experiences (EHEs): Their relevance to transpersonal psychology. Paper presented at the ITP Global Seminar, Los Gatos, CA.

Brumberg, J. J. (1988). Fasting girls: The history of anorexia nervosa. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.

Buhner, S. H. (2003). The fasting path: For spiritual, emotional, and physical healing and renewal. New York: Avery Publishing Group.

Butcher, T. (2007). Yoga consciousness in ancient mystery religions: Cinderella sutras. London: Janus Publishing Company.

Bynum, C. W. (1987). Holy feast and holy fast. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press.

Campbell, J. (1991). The masks of God, vol. 1: Primitive mythology. New York: Penguin.

Chapple, C. K. (2007). Purgation and virtue in Jainism: Toward an ecological ethic. In P. Bilimora, J. Prabhu, & R. Sharma (Eds.), Indian ethics: Classical traditions and contemporary challenges (Vol. 1, pp. 217-227). Burlington, VT: Ashgate.

Chellappa, P., & Ramaraj, R. (2009). Depression, homocysteine concentration, and cardiovascular events. Journal of the American Medical Association, 15,1541-1542.

Clark, R. (2000). The sacred tradition in ancient Egypt: The esoteric wisdom revealed. St. Paul, MN: Llewellyn Publications.

Cohen, H., & Bruckstein, A. S. (Trans.). (2003). Ethics of Maimonides. Madison: University of Wisconsin Press.

Colbin, A. (1986). Food and healing. New York: Ballantine.

Cortright, B. (1997). Psychotherapy and spirit: Theory and practice in transpersonal psychotherapy. Albany, NY: State University of New York Press.

Cott, A. (1974). Controlled fasting treatment for schizophrenia. Journal of Orthomolecular Psychiatry, 3, 301-311.

Daniels, M. (2005). Shadow, self, spirit. Charlottesville, VA: Imprint Academic.

Deegalle, M. (2000). Asceticism: Buddhist perspectives. In W. M. Johnston (Ed.), Encyclopedia of Monasticism (Vol. 1, pp. 89-91). Chicago: Fitzroy Dearborn.

Denton, L. T. (2004). Female ascetics in Hinduism. Albany, NY: State University of New York Press.

Drury, N. (2006). The dictionary of the esoteric: Over 3,000 entries on the mystical & occult traditions. London: Watkins.

Dundas, P. (2002). The Jains. New York: Routledge.

Dunn, M. (2003). Emergence of monasticism: From the desert fathers to the early middle ages. Oxford: Wiley-Blackwell.

Ellmann, M. (1993). The hunger artists: Starving, writing, and imprisonment. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.

Epstein, G. (1995). Standing on Sinai. In E. Hoffman (Ed.), Opening the inner gates: New paths in Kabbalah and psychology (pp. 249-265). Boston: Shambhala.

Ezra, D. S. B. (2002). The impact of Yom Kippur on early Christianity. Tübingen, Germany: Mohr Siebeck.

Fallon, B. A., & Horwath, E. (1993). Asceticism: Creative spiritual practice or pathological pursuit? Psychiatry, 56(3), 310-316.

Firman, J., & Gila, A. (2002). Psychosynthesis: A psychology of the spirit. Albany, NY: State University of New York Press.

Firman, J., & Vargiu, J. G. (1996). Religiousness and spirituality. In S. Boorstien (Eds.), Transpersonal psychotherapy (pp. 117-142). Albany, NY: State University of New York Press.

Flinders, C. L. (1993). Enduring grace: Living portraits of seven women mystics. San Francisco: HarperCollins.

Flinders, C. L. (1999). At the root of this longing: Reconciling a spiritual hunger with a feminist thirst. San Francisco: HarperCollins.

Foster, S., & Little, M. (1980). The book of the vision quest: Personal transformation in the wilderness. Covelo, CA: Island Press.

Foster, P. (2006, October). Woman starves herself to death in ancient ritual. Telegraph Media Group. Retrieved May 2. 2007, from http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/1530366/
Woman-starves-herself-to-death-in-ancient-ritual.html

Fowler, J. (2002). Perspectives of reality: An introduction to the philosophy of Hinduism. Portland, OR: Sussex Academic Press.

Frager, R., & Fadiman, J. (2005). Personality and personal growth (6th ed.). New York: Pearson Prentice Hall.

Gandhi, M. K. (2001). Non-violent resistance (satyagraha). Mineola, NY: Dover.

Gethin, R. (1998). The foundations of Buddhism. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

Ghosh, L., & Merchant, R. (1999, October 18). New age addiction. India Today, 46-47.

Goldberg, B., Anderson, J., & Trivieri, L. (1994). Alternative medicine: The definitive guide. Berkeley, CA: Ten Speed Press.

Goldhamer, A. C. (2002). Initial cost of care results in medically supervised water-only fasting for treating high blood pressure and diabetes. The Journal of Alternative and Complementary Medicine, 6, 696-697.

Goldhamer, A. C., Lisle, D. J., Sultana, P., Anderson, S. V., Parpia, B., Hughes, B., & Campbell, T. C. (2002). Medically supervised water-only fasting in the treatment of borderline hypertension. The Journal of Alternative and Complementary Medicine, 5, 643-650.

Goscienski, P. J. (2005). Health secrets of the stone age. Concord, Ontario: Better Life.

Grof, S. (1998). The adventure of self-discovery: Dimensions of consciousness and new perspectives in psychotherapy and inner exploration. Albany, NY: State University of New York Press.

Grof, S., & Grof, C. (1989). Spiritual emergency: When personal transformation becomes a crisis. New York: Jeremy P. Tarcher.

Hagelin, J. S., Rainforth, M. V., Cavanaugh, K. L. C., Alexander, C. N., Shatkin, S. F., Davies, J. L., Hughes, A. O., Ross, E., & Orme-Johnson, D. W. (1999). Effects of group practice of the transcendental meditation program on preventing violent crime in Washington, D.C.: Results of the national demonstration project, Social Indicators Research, 47, 153-201.

Harner, M. (1980). The way of the shaman. New York: Harper Row.

Hoffman, E. (1996). An Introduction to Kabbalistic Psychotherapy. In S. Boorstein (Eds.), Transpersonal psychotherapy (pp. 165-180). Albany, NY: State University of New York Press.

Hoffman, V. (1995). Eating and fasting for God in Sufi tradition. Journal of the Academy of Religion, LXIII(3), 465-484.

Homer. (2007). The iliad and the odyssey. Radford, VA: Wilder Publications.

Houston, J. (1998). The passion of Isis and Osiris: A gateway to transcendent love. New York: Ballantine.

Jaini, P. (1979). The Jaina path of purification. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press.

James, W. (2007). The varieties of religious experience. Stilwell, KS: Digireads.

Jestice, P. G. (2004). Holy people of the world: A cross-cultural encyclopedia. Mount Kisco, Oxford: ABC-CLIO.

Jonas, B.S., & Lando, J. F. (2000). Negative affect as a prospective risk factor for hypertension. Psychosomatic Medicine, 2, 188-196.

Kaelber, W. O. (2005). Asceticism. In L. Jones (Ed.), Encyclopedia of religion (Vol.1, pp. 526- 530). New York: Thompson Gale.

Kanazawaa, M., Hongob, M., & Fukudo, S. (2006). Fasting therapy for functional gastrointestinal disorders. International Congress Series, 1287, 309-312.

Keown, D. (2003). Dictionary of Buddhism. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

Kinnard, J. N. (2006). The emergence of Buddhism. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press.

Kornfield, J. (2001). After the ecstasy, the laundry: How the heart grows wise on the spiritual path. New York: Bantam.

Krippner, S., & Achterberg, J. (2000). Anomalous healing experiences. In E. Cardena, S. J. Lynn, & S. C. Krippner (Eds.), Varieties of anomalous experience: Examining the scientific evidence (pp. 353-396). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.

Krippner, S., Bogzaran, F., & De Carvalho, A. P. (2002). Extraordinary dreams and how to work with them. Albany, NY: State University of New York Press.

Krippner, S., & McIntyre, T. M. (2003). The psychological impact of war trauma on civilians: An international perspective. Westport, CT: Praeger.

Kroeber, A. L. (2006). Handbook of the Indians of California, vol 1. Whitefish, MT: Kessinger.

Kroll, J. (2005). The mystic mind: The psychology of medieval mystics and ascetics. New York: Routledge.

Laidlaw, J. (2005). A life worth leaving: Fasting to death as telos of a Jain religious life. Economy and Society, 34(2), 178-199.

Lansford, T. (2004). Asceticism. In F. A. Salamone (Ed.), Encyclopedia of religious rites, rituals, and festivals (pp. 35-38). New York: Routledge.

Larsen, S. (2001). Forward. In E. Tick, The practice of dream healing: Bringing ancient Greek mysteries into modern medicine (pp. ix-xviii). Wheaton, IL: Quest Books

Lelwica, M. M. (2002). Starving for salvation: The spiritual dimensions of eating problems among American girls and women. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

Ling, T. O. (1972). A dictionary of Buddhism. New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons.

Lochtefeld, J. (2002). The illustrated encyclopedia of Hinduism. New York: Rosen.

Lyon, W. S. (1998). Encyclopedia of native American shamanism: Sacred ceremonies of north America. Santa Barbara, CA: ABC-CLIO.

MacGregor, G. (1989). Dictionary of religion and philosophy. New York: Paragon House.

Maslow, A. H. (1962). Lessons from peak experiences. Journal of Humanistic Psychology, 2, 9- 18.

Maslow, A. H. (1971). The farther reaches of human nature. New York: Viking Compass.

May, G. G. (2005). The dark night of the soul: A psychiatrist explores the connection between darkness and spiritual growth. New York: HarperOne.

McAuliffe, J. D. (Ed.). (2002). Encyclopedia of the Quran. Boston: Brill, Leiden.

Metzner, R. (1986). The unfolding self: Varieties of the transformative experience. Novato, CA: Origin Press.

Metzner, R. (2001). Well of remembrance: Rediscovering the earth wisdom myths of Northern Europe. Boston: Shambhala.

Muhlestein, J. B., Anderson, J. L., Horne, B. D., Lavasani, F., Maycock, C. A., Bair, T. L., Pearson, R. R., & Carlquist, J. F. (2003). Intermountain Heart Collaborative Study Group. Effect of fasting glucose levels on mortality rate in patients with and without diabetes mellitus and coronary artery disease undergoing percutaneous coronary intervention. American Heart Journal, 2, 351–358.

Murray, S. A., Huber, R. V., & Mechem, E. (Eds.). (2008). Hammond atlas of world religions: A visual history of our great faiths. Duncan, SC: Hammond World Atlas.

Murray, M., & Pizzorno, J. (1997). Encyclopedia of natural medicine. New York: Three Rivers Press.

Narby, J., & Huxley, F. (2001). Shamans through time: 500 years on the path to knowledge. New York: J.P. Tarcher.

Nash, R. J. (2001). Religious pluralism in the academy: Opening the dialogue. New York: Peter Lang.

Nicholas, J. (2000). A thin body carries the most definition(s): Reconceptualizing voluntary self- starvation as an act of resistance. Unpublished master’s thesis, Queen’s University, Kingston, Ontario.

Olson, C. (2005). The different paths of Buddhism: A narrative-historical introduction. London: Rutgers University Press.

Owens, C. M. (1975). Zen Buddhism. In C. T. Tart (Ed.), Transpersonal Psychologies (pp. 155- 201). New York: Harper & Row.

Parrinder, G. (1973). Dictionary of non-Christian religions. Philadelphia: Westminster Press.

Peters, L. G. (1975). The contributions of anthropology to transpersonal psychiatry. In C. T. Tart (Ed.), Transpersonal psychologies (pp. 207-227). New York: Harper & Row.

Pizzorno, J., & Murray, M. (1999). Textbook of natural medicine. New York: Churchill Livingstone.

Rader, R. (2005). Fasting. In L. Jones (Ed.), Encyclopedia of religion (Vol. 5, pp. 2995-2998). New York: Thompson Gale.

Renard, J. (2005). Historical dictionary of Sufism. London: The Scarecrow Press, Inc.

Roberts, J. (2003). Setting the frame: Definition, functions, and typology of rituals. In E. Imber- Black, J. Robert, & R. A. Whiting (Eds.), Rituals in families and family therapy, revised edition (pp. 3-48). New York: W.W. Norton & Co.

Rogers, C.R. (1961). On becoming a person. Boston: Houghton Mifflin.

Rothberg, D. (2000). Spiritual inquiry. In T. Hart, P. Nelson, & K. Puhakka (Eds.), Transpersonal knowing: Exploring the horizon of consciousness (pp. 161-184). Albany, NY: State University of New York Press.

Schnall, D. J. (1981). Yom Kippur. In K. Crim, R. A. Bullard, & L. D. Shinn (Eds.), Abingdon dictionary of living religions (pp. 817). Nashville: Abingdon.

Shukla, A. (2009). 4,000 Jains end year-long fast. Diligent Media. Retrieved May 2, 2009, from http://www.dnaindia.com/report.asp?newsid=1251050

Smith, H. (1995). The illustrated world religions: A guide to our wisdom traditions. New York: HarperOne.

Smith, H., & Cousineau, P. (2005). The way things are: Conversations with Huston Smith on the spiritual life. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press.

Sperry, L. (2001). Spirituality in clinical practice: Incorporating the spiritual dimension in psychotherapy and counseling. New York: Routledge.

Sperry, L., Hoffman, L., Cox, R. H., & Cox, B. E. (2007). Spirituality in achieving physical and psychological health and well-being: Theory, research and low cost interventions. In L. L'Abate (Ed.), Low-cost approaches to promote physical and mental health: Theory, research, and practice (pp. 435-452). New York: Springer.

Spilka, B. (2005). Religious practice, ritual, and prayer. In R. F. Paloutzian & C. L. Park (Eds.), Handbook of the psychology of religion and spirituality (pp. 365-377). New York: The Guildford Press.

St. Pierre, M. (2002). Walking in the sacred manner: Healers, dreamers, and pipe carriers – medicine women of the plains. New York: Touchstone.

Stone, J. D. (1997). Hidden mysteries: ETs, ancient mystery schools and ascension. Sedona, AZ: Light Technology.

Suvarna, M. S., & Nirgun, M. (Eds.) (1974). The book of secrets: Keys to love and meditation. New York: Macmillan.

Tart, C. T. (1997). Body mind spirit: Exploring the parapsychology of spirituality. Charlottesville, VA: Hampton Road.

Thomas, L. E., & Eisenhandler, S. A. (1999). Religion, belief, and spirituality in late life. New York: Springer.

Thompson, J. M. (2005). Buddhism. In W. L. Bailey & E. Taitz (Eds.), Introduction to the world's major religions: Vol. 3. Abingdon: Greenwood Press.

Thorner, A., Raj, M. K., Krishnaraj, M., & Trust, S. (2000). Ideals, images and real lives: Women in literature and history. New Delhi: Orient Longman.

Toker, S., Shirom, A., & Melamed, S. (2008). Depression and the metabolic syndrome: Gender- dependent associations. Depression and Anxiety, 8, 661-669.

Vaage, L. E., & Wimbush, V. L. (1999). Asceticism and the new testament. New York: Routledge.

Valantasis, R. (2008). The making of the self: Ancient and modern asceticism. Eugene, OR: Cascade Books.

Vandereycken, W. (1994). From fasting saints to anorexic girls: The history of self-starvation. Washington Square, NY: New York University Press.

Vaughan, F. (1993). Healing and wholeness: Transpersonal psychotherapy. In R. Walsh & F. Vaughan (Eds.), Paths beyond ego: The transpersonal vision (pp. 160-165). Los Angeles: J.T. Tarcher.

Vaughan, F. (2005). Shadows of the sacred: Seeing through spiritual illusions. Lincoln, NE: iUniverse.

Villoldo, A., & Krippner, S. (1987). Healing states: A journey into the world of spiritual healing and shamanism. New York: Fireside.

von Braun, C. (2007). Fasting. In K. von Stuckrad (Ed.), The Brill dictionary of religion (Vol. 2, pp. 719-720). Boston: Leiden.

Wallis, A. (1981). The Radical Christian. Fort Washington, PA: London: Power Books.

Wallis, A. (1968). God's chosen fast. Fort Washington, PA: Christian Literature Crusade.

Walsh, R. (2000). Essential spirituality: The 7 central practices to awaken heart and mind. New York: Wiley.

Walsh, R. (2004). Shamanism. In H. Palmer (Ed.), Inner knowing: Consciousness, creativity, insight, and intuition (pp. 60-67). New York: Jeremy P. Tarcher/Putnam.

Walsh, R., & Vaughan, F. (1993). Introduction. In R. Walsh & F. Vaughan (Eds.), Paths beyond ego: The transpersonal vision (pp. 1-10). Los Angeles: J. T. Tarcher.

Washburn, M. (1994). Transpersonal psychology in psychoanalytic perspective. Albany, NY: State University of New York Press.

Webster, H. (1973). Fasting. In S. Mathews & G. B. Smith (Eds.), A dictionary of religion and ethics (pp. 164). London: Gale Research Company.

Werblowsky, R. J. Z., & Wigoder, G. (Eds.). (1997). The Oxford dictionary of the Jewish religion. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

Wheatley, L. A. (2007). The story of the imitatio Christi. Whitefish, MT: Kessinger.

White, R. A. (1994). Working classifications of EHE's. Exceptional Human Experience: Background Papers, 149-150.

White, S. E. (1940). The unobstructed universe. Boston: E. P. Dutton.

Wigoder, G., Skolnick, F., & Himelstein, S. (Eds.). (2002). The new encyclopedia of Judaism. Washington Square, NY: New York University Press.

Wiley, K. L. (2004). Historical dictionary of Jainism. Blue Ridge Summit, PA: The Scarecrow Press.

Williams, P. A. (2001). Doing without Adam and Eve: Sociobiology and original sin. Minneapolis: Augsburg Fortress.

Wilson, L. (2004). Ascetic practices. In R. E. Buswell (Ed.), Encyclopedia of Buddhism (pp. 32-34). New York: Thompson Gale.

Wulff, D. M. (2000). Mystical experience. In E. Cardena, S. J. Lynn, & S. C. Krippner (Eds.), Varieties of anomalous experience: Examining the scientific evidence (pp. 397-440). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.

Young, B. H. (2007). Meet the Rabbis: Rabbinic thought and the teachings of Jesus. Peabody, MA: Hendrickson.

Zinnbauer, B. J., & Pargament, K. I. (2005). Religiousness and spirituality. In R. F. Paloutzian & C. L. Park (Eds.), Handbook of the psychology of religion and spirituality (pp. 21-42). New York: The Guildford Press.