Fasting and Research




Fasting and Asceticism in Buddhism
By Randi Fredricks

Fasting and asceticism have influenced the formation of major religions. The degree to which this has occurred has been a subject of controversy. For example, some theologians have suggested it may have caused Buddhist leaders to minimize the fact that asceticism was actually one of Buddha’s main concerns (Wilson, 2004).

The Homogenization of Buddhism

Considering fasting from a Buddhist perspective can be problematic largely because Siddhartha Gautama (Buddha) had radical ascetic experiences, yet is said to have promoted moderate asceticism. Based on this discrepancy, the topic of asceticism in Buddhism is an ongoing controversy (Gethin, 1998; Olson, 2005; Wilson, 2004).

Most accounts indicate that Siddhartha fasted and practiced other forms of asceticism for a period of 6 to 7 years, during which he performed a variety of austere activities that were traditions of popular ascetic movements at that time (Wilson, 2004). One particular group of ascetics with whom Siddhartha associated with, the Sramanics, used psychosomatic disciplines designed to help the participant transcend the state of conditioned existence. This included long periods of breath control, living in non-traditional places like caves or forests, going unclothed (or clothed in uncomfortable materials such as bark), eating restricted diets, and fasting.

This period in Siddhartha’s life serves as the starting point of the controversy as to whether or not he believed in asceticism as a constructive spiritual practice. Carl Olson (2005), professor of religious studies at Allegheny College, discussed some of the specific techniques Siddhartha used during his years of “arduous” austerity (p. 27). One of Siddhartha’s favorite ascetic practices included breathing in and out of his nose and mouth rhythmically to the point of severe headaches, auditory hallucinations, fever, and intestinal problems. Siddhartha spoke of engaging in even more severe asceticism, such as “sleeping on bones in the cemeteries, crawling into cow pens to eat cow manure, and consuming his own feces and urine” (p. 27). This kind of self-mortification is not unusual in the history of ascetics. The fasting Catholic saints were known to go to similar extremes, such as voluntarily consuming infectious bodily fluids of their dying patients (Bynum, 1987).

Siddhartha, known as “Buddha” after his enlightenment, has been quoted as speaking both favorably and against asceticism (Keown, 2003; Owens, 1975). A reasonable explanation for this may be due to the fact that some of his ascetical activities, such as fasting, were beneficial in the early stages whereas they became injurious when carried out for too long. For example, Buddha pursued fasting to the point where he became emaciated and described his condition as follows:

All of my limbs became like the joints of withered creepers…my gaunt ribs became like the crazy rafters of a tumble-down shed my scalp became shriveled and shrunk and the skin of my belly clung to my backbone. (Keown, 2003, p. 149)

One cited reason as to why Buddha adopted a more moderate view of asceticism has to do with his being influenced by peer pressure. Liz Wilson (2004), professor of comparative religion at Miami University, claimed, “A critical juncture in his ascetic regimen occurred when he accepted an offering of rice boiled in milk and was rejected by his ascetic companions as hedonistic” (p. 33). Dejected and angry, Buddha subsequently denounced the ascetic practices of those who had rejected him.

Another plausible explanation for the conflicting reports on Buddha’s view of asceticism suggests that his followers intentionally misinterpreted his opinion to serve their own agendas. Wilson suggested that the assimilation of Buddhism into popular culture forced its leaders to take a moderate stance on asceticism in order to differentiate themselves from more radical Indian religions, such as the Sramanics and the Jains. As Buddhists competed for support and acceptance from the lay population, “Antiascetic sentiments began to be expressed as Buddhists responded to critical remarks . . .” (p. 33). Rival religious groups and polemics pressured those in the Buddhist community to focus on Buddha’s negative comments on asceticism, while overlooking his more positive beliefs. Wilson stated, “The biographical tradition of the Buddha’s discovery of the Middle Way after practicing extreme asceticism was developed in this polemic context” (p. 33). This is a fairly radical assertion, suggesting that some of the facts pertaining to Buddha’s philosophies may have been skewed to make Buddhism more homogenous. In addition to social pressures against asceticism, it is reasonable to assume some branches of Buddhism may have held a narrow view of it as extremist and self-centered. Ambivalence towards asceticism within Buddhist traditions may have to do with the manner in which Buddhism promotes contentment with possessing very little and shies away the aggrandizing associated with some ascetics, particularly those who practiced during medieval times. Again, it may be helpful to consider the agendas behind these views and the fact that these opinions were formed long after Buddha’s lifetime.

Rupert Gethin (1998), author of The Foundations of Buddhism, said “Buddha had originally intended to institute only a movement of committed ascetics removed from society; these are the true and original Buddhists” (p. 87). According to Gethin, the concept of moderation and lay followers were—at most—an afterthought for Buddha.

In order to get a better understanding of Buddha’s personal view on asceticism, it can be useful to take a closer look at his practice of fasting, a ritual he performed extensively.

References
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Randi Fredricks is a Naturopathic Psychotherapist with a Doctorate in Naturopathy and a Masters in Psychology. She sees clients at her office in San Jose, California. She can be reached at 800-957-5655 or you can contact her online. This article is an excerpt from Randi Fredricks' book Fasting: An Exceptional Human Experience. Copyright © 2009. All rights reserved. No part of this article may be reproduced in any form or by any electronic or mechanical means, including information storage and retrieval systems.







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